Banking Industry in Bangladesh: Its Contribution and Performance

Journal of Business Research, vol. 3, 2001 This article is brought to you by www. bdresearch. org Banking Sector in Bangladesh: Its Contribution and Performance Sharif Rayhan Siddique* A F M Mafizul Islam** Abstract: The paper attempted to highlight the prospects and opportunities of banking sector in Bangladesh. Like other economic sector in the country, Banking is one of major sectors which contribute to the national economy. The study tried to furnish the overview of the performances of banking sector and also find out the comparison among the various categories of banks with respect to the Profitability.Finally, the paper tried to establish the linear relationship among the various variables and net profit of the banking sector. 1. Introduction Banking sector of Bangladesh is one of the major sectors, which contributes significantly to the national economy. The sector comprises a number of banks in various categories. Considering ownership the sector can be classified in to four major categories – such as Nationalized Commercial Banks (NCBs), Specialized Banks (SPBs), Private Commercial Banks (PCBs), and Trans-National Banks (TNBs). The list of banks under different categories is furnished in the appendix – A.The study has been initiated to analyze the contribution of this sector and its profitability. This paper attempts to provide an overview of the contribution of the sector in national economy. The paper also analyzes the profitability of different categories of banks. Finally a regression analysis has been done to examine the relationship between the profitability and other variables. 2. Contribution of the Banking sector in National Economy Economic development – of the country is executed by the contribution of various economic sectors. Like agriculture, industries, power, transport, rade service, etc. , banking sector also has a contribution to the economic growth. In mid 80s Banking and Insurance contributed 1. 69% of GDP and g radually the figure was increasing. The maximum contribution was 2. 09% of GDP in the year 1993 and it was 2. 00% in 1996-971 Average growth rate of this contribution was 1. 51% of GDP, which shows a positive trend. Again, the sector makes a positive impact on the economic development by generating employment. In the year 1980 total number of employees in this sector was 59,235 but with in 15 years of time the figure shoot approximately double to 101,444. The average growth rate of employment generation was 3. 76% (1980-1995). Countries like Bangladesh have a burden of its unemployment, where as banking sector still keep certain impact on employment generation. __________________________ * Assistant Professor, Institute of Business Administration, University of Dhaka. ** Associate Professor, Institute of Business Administration, University of Dhaka. 1 Calculated from the data collected from Economic Trend, December 1997. 2 Ibid. 2 Banking Sector in Bangladesh: Its Contribution and P erformance Branches of the banks were also growing significantly.Increasing branches indicate a wide service provider to the population of Bangladesh. Overall growth rate of the bank branches was 2. 11% (1980-1995). But before 1990 the rate was 3. 00% and after 1990 it was 0. 92%. In early 80s for the first time Government of Bangladesh (GOB) allowed private sector to operate commercial banks. At that time number of bank branches was growing rapidly. In the early 90s this growth rate was reduced, which may be because of the saturation stage. Individuals and business organizations used to deposit their savings in the bank and borrow money form it.More the bank branches more people can be covered to avail them in banking services. Average population per branch was 19,875 during the period from 1984 to 1995. Because of the higher population growth rate (2. 22%),3 in spite of increasing branches, the population per branch was also increasing. Commercial banks are one of the profit makin g organizations, they are also making money by investing their deposits to the profitable venture through lending to the entrepreneurs. Commercial banks earn money from interest for loan and commissions and service charges for the services and it incurred expenditure as well.Average profit per taka of expenditure was 0. 10. Before 1991 this figure was quite good, but after 1991 the ratio was negative up to 1993. Maximum figure was in the year 1982 that was 0. 23 and minimum was -0. 04 in the year 1991. Recently the ratio became 0. 07 in the year 1995. During 1991 to 1993 net profit was negative. i. e. commercial banks spent more than earning but again they improved the situation by reducing their expenditure compared to income. Banks' income generated by the positive efforts of their employees.Efficient employees can earn more which observed a positive impact to profit generation. Income per employee can be one of the indicators of commercial banks' performance. Average income per e mployee from 1980 to 1995 was Tk. 227,046, i. e. per employees' contribution to income was more than Tk. 2 lacs. The ratio was increasing significantly with the average growth rate of 12%, to Tk. 371,297 in the year 1995. A country leads itself to the economic development by investing and producing more in the local area. Investment can be ensured through increased savings rate.Monetization ratio indicates a positive impact to the economic growth. This ratio is Broad Money to GDP. Average monetization ratio was 28% of GDP, and it was growing significantly from 17% in the year 1981 to 35% in the year 1995. 4 Commercial banks, as a whole, performing well and contributing to the economic development of the country. The average profitability of all banks collectively was 0. 09% during 1980 to 1995, which means profit Tk. 0. 09 earned by utilizing assets of Tk. 100. In every aspect of profit, banking sector contributes to national economy as well as to the individual organization.Despite overall growth of the banking sector was positive, but the performances of different categories of banks were not equally attractive. Following section would compare analytically the performances of various categories of banks. _____________________________________________ 3 4 Calculated from the data collected from Statistical Yearbook, 1996. Ibid. Journal of Business Research, Vol. 3, 2001 3 3. Profitability of the Different Categories of Banks: A Comparative Analysis Main focus of this comparison on net profit earned by the banks.Profit ratio, profit per taka of expenditure, profit per employee, profit per branch, profit per advance account, profit per taka of investment, profit per taka of deposit (savings), and per capita profit earned by the banks will be the variables for this analysis. Various groups of banks have different performances in terms of profit. Average measures were calculated for different categories of banks over the period from 1980 to 1995. 3. 1 Profit Ratio In case of profitability, i. e. amount of profit per Tk. 100 of asset. The ratio indicates the effective utilization of assets.Performance of the organization can be expressed by this ratio. Average profitability ratios for the various categories of banks during 1980 to 1995 were exhibited in the table below: Table 1: Profit Ratio for Various Banks Banks Profit Ratio (%) NCBs 0. 08 SPBs -0. 32 PCBs 0. 13 TNBs 0. 71 Over all 0. 09 Source: Adopted from data in Appendix – B. The table indicated the performances in terms of utilization of assets in generating profit TNBs were the best. Specialized Banks had a very worst situation in utilizing of their assets, by showing negative average net profit.Though as of 1990 net profits were increasing positively, but from 1991 to 1995 these net profit were gradually decreased to negative because of their declining income. On the other hand TNBs performance was excellent as compared to overall banks performance. Average growth rate of net profit for TNBs was 39%, which was extremely good. 3. 2 Profit per Taka of Expenditure Banks earned profit by incurring expenditure for their operations. Effective usage of financial resources led to a commendable profit situation. â€Å"How much profit earned by spending one taka† is the measure of efficiency of an organization.Following table shows net profit per taka of expenditure for the different banks Table 2 : Profit per Taka of Expenditure for Various Banks Banks Profit per taka of expenditure (Tk. ) NCBs 0. 029 SPBs -0. 092 PCBs 0. 033 TNBs 0. 307 Overall 0. 10 Source: Adopted from data in Appendix – B. 4 Banking Sector in Bangladesh: Its Contribution and Performance Over all average profit was Tk. 0. 1 by incurring expenditure of Tk. 1. i. e. average return on expenditure was 10%. But in case of individual performance SPBs had negative average return on expenditure (-9. %), on the other hand TNBs performance (30. 7%) was above the industry average. Other th an these two NCBs and PCBs both had vulnerable situation. 3. 3 Profit per Employee Effective utilization of human resources produces higher return. Earned more profit by few numbers of employee indicates commendable performance of the banks and human efficiency. Since the nature of the industry is service oriented, so human efficiency depends on intellectual abilities of the employees. Following table shows the comparison among various banks Table 3 : Profit per Employee for Various BanksBanks Profit per employee (Tk. ) NCBs 4,538 SPBs -34,216 PCBs 9,659 TNBs 285,659 Over all 12,88 Source: Adopted from data in Appendix – B. Over all profit per employee was Tk. 12,880, i. e. each employee's average contribution to the net profit was Tk. 12,880 in a year. TNBs as compared with overall, the figure was extremely good (Tk. 285,659). There are two indications for this picture, one is TNBs had highly efficient employees, and other is less number of employees. On the other hand excep t SPBs (which had negative figure), NCBs average profit per employee was Tk. ,538, which was far below from TNBs, even below from overall performance, which shows un-utilized human resources. 3. 4 Profit per Branch All categories of banks have numbers of branches covering wide range of the population of the country. To provide service to the wide range of people, banks have to establish multiple branches. Contribution to the total profit of different branches was varied, depending on the amount of deposits and advances. Table below expresses average profit contribution by the branches. Table 4 : Profit per Branch for Various Banks Banks Profit per branch (Tk. ) NCBs 6,205 SPBs -491,827 PCBs 181,548 TNBs 13,171,737 Over all 210,481 Source: Adopted from data in Appendix – B. 5 Banking Sector in Bangladesh: Its Contribution and Performance Considering all commercial banks in Bangladesh, these were earned on an average Tk. 0. 064 from investing one taka. The average Return on Inv estment (ROI) was not inadequate (6. 4%) as compared to any business. In case of TNBs this rate was very attractive (12. 7%), but except SPBs, both NCBs and PCBs had 1. 2% and 2. 5% respectively. 3. 7 Per Capita Profit Commercial banks are operating countrywide by offering services.Accumulating funds and distributing them to entrepreneur was the main function of commercial banks. Wider area coverage makes the commercial bank more comfortable in terms of operation. Per capita profit earned by the commercial bank would indicate overall economic strength of banking system. Average profit gained per head can be expressed in the table below: Table 7 : Per Capita Profit for Various Banks Banks Per Capita Profit (Tk. ) NCBs 2. 53 SPBs -5. 25 PCBs 1. 46 TNBs 2. 51 Over all 10. 66 Source: Adopted from data in Appendix – B. Average profit per individual in the country for all banks was Tk. 0. 66, i. e. banking sector earns over Tk. 10 per head. But using same coverage for different cat egories of banks, the picture would be different. In case of NCBs operation they gained on an average Tk. 2. 53 per individual, where as TNBs earned Tk. 2. 51 per head. Apparently these two figures were same but considering the coverage in terms of number of branches, NCBs have 170 time more branches than TNBs. 3. 8 Overall Situation Considering all variables regarding profit, TNBs were doing extraordinarily good operation in this sector. Because of the policies and managements TNBs performance was better.Keeping TNBs aside, PCBs performance comparatively better. As far as the ownership was concerned both NCBs and SPBs were same. PCBs started their operations in 1982, before the Government of Bangladesh controlled that total financial sector. But after allowing private sectors to operate commercial banks, PCBs were gradually capturing the market share. Surprisingly SPBs had negative performances in every aspect because of their negative net profit. 4. Relationship of Profit With Oth er Variables In the above section comparison of profitability among various groups of banks has been discussed.But it was desired to know about the sensitivity of profit on various variables. Journal of Business Research, Vol. 3, 2001 6 Multiple regression analysis has been done to analyze the relationship between net profit as dependent variable and asset, expenditure, number of employees, number of branches, number of advance accounts, investment, time deposit are as independent variables. In this paper it was assumed that the relationship among the variables was linear, which is ? = A + B? + C? + D? + E? + F? + G? + H? †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. i) where, ? is net profit ? is number of employees ? is amount of expenditure ? is number of branches ? is amount of investment ? is amount of asset ? is amount of time deposit ? is number of advance accounts A is constant The following section e xpressed the determination of coefficient of the independent variables, which indicate the degree of influences on net profit by corresponding variables. 4. 1 Regression Result Based on data provided in appendix – C, the values of coefficients and constant were calculated and also found the relationship among them.Multiple linear regression equation is expressed in equation (ii). ? = – 68459+0. 002 ? -0. 186 ? +0. 159? -0. 084? +0. 003? +0. 133 ? -1. 03Ãâ€"10-6?†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. (ii) Above linear equation shows that some of the independent variables have positive relationship and others have negative. Amount of expenditure, amount of investment and number of advance accounts all have negative relationship with net profit. On the other hand amount of asset, number of employees, number of branches and amount of time deposit have positive relationship with net profit.Further, the strength of the relationship among the variables measured by the coefficient of determination (r2). The value was calculated as 0. 89, indicating very strong relationship. Therefore, the independent variables collectively may play important role on earning net profit in the banking sector as a whole. 4. 2 Scope to Improve of Profit In the equation (ii), it was evident that some of the independent variables have positive impact on net profit, though the degree of influences was very low. Net profit may increases by increasing values, which have positive relations.From equation (ii), it was 7 Banking Sector in Bangladesh: Its Contribution and Performance clear that number of employee, number of branches, amount of asset and amount of time deposit have positive relations with net profit. From above relationship, it can be explained that if number of employee increased by one, the net profit will increase by Tk. 0. 002 crores, i. e. every 1,000 employees can contribute Tk. 2 crores to net profit. This indicated that there might be still opportunities to generate employment in th is sector and can contribute to the national economy.Again number of branches has also positive impact on net profit. Equation (ii) reflects that increase in one branch may increase net profit by the amount of Tk. 0. 159 crores, which also testifies that there was still scope to increase branches. In Bangladesh there were opportunities to establish branches in the rural areas where lots of business potentials were looking for the banking service. Another variable the amount of asset has positive relationship with net profit. Even it has very little influences on profit; every Tk. 1,000 crores of assets would increase net profit by the amount of Tk. 3 crores.Therefore, it was apparent that there was still room to increase the amount of asset to earn more profit. Finally, the amount of time deposit was other variable, which has positive influences on net profit. Coefficient of this variable in equation (ii) was 0. 133, this indicated that every Tk. 1,000 crores increase in time deposi t would increase profit by the amount of Tk. 133 crores. Analyzing above relationship, time deposit has stronger influences on net profit. Therefore, banking sector as a whole may increase their contribution to national economy if the amount of time deposit was increased.Analyzing the regression equation it was clear that some of the independent variables have positive control over the generation of net profit, and also might increase the contribution of the banking sector to national economy by increasing the values of those variables. 5. Conclusion The performance of the banking sector in terms of net profit varies in various groups of bank. The study revealed that in every aspect, TNBs had a commendable performance. But comparing among other groups of banks (NCBs, SPBs, and PCBs), PCBs had preferred achievement aiming profit. On the other hand Specialized Banks in Bangladesh had a very poor performance.This meager activity affected the overall banking sector's performance. The co mparison among various categories of banks has been done on the basis of the profit with respect to some other variables. The study also revealed the relationship among the dependent variable and independent variables. The equation (ii) shows the weights of the independent variables that influences net profit of the banking sector. Finally, the paper intended to identify the scopes and opportunities of the factors by which over all net profit might increase, and contribute to the national economy.Journal of Business Research, Vol. 3, 2001 8 References 1. Mohammad Moqbul Hossain Bhuiyan. (1995). Managerial Effectiveness of Private Commercial Banks : A Comparative Study. Journal of Business Studies, Vol. XVI, No-1, June. 2. Sujit Ranjan Saha. (1996). Ancillary Business and Profitability of Banks : Trends and Prospects. Bank Parikrama. Vol. XXI, Nos – 1 & 2, March & June. 3. Taufic Ahmad Choudhury and others. (1994). Comparative Characteristics of Profit Earning and Loss Incurri ng Rural Bank Branches in Bangladesh. Bank Parikrama. Vol. XIX, Nos – 3 & 4, September & December. 4.Abdul Ghafar Ismail. (1993). Deregulation and Bank Behaviour in Mixed markets. The Asian Economic Review. Vol. XXXV, No – 2, August. 5. Dipendra Sinha. (1996). Savings and Economic Growth in India. The Asian Economic Review. Vol. XXXVIII, No – 3, December. 6. Amar Chand Kaushik. (1996). Impact Study of Regional Rural Bank's Credit on Income Generation an d Poverty Alleviation in Rural Haryana. The Asian Economic Review. Vol. XXXVIII, No – 1, April. 7. David Lynch. (1996). Measuring Financial Sector Development : A Study of Selected Asia-Pacific Countries. The Developing Economics. Vol.XXXIV, No – 1, March. 8. Schiller, Bradley R. (1994). The Macro Economy Today. Sixth Edition. McGrawHill Inc. , New York, USA. 9. McConnell, Campbell R. and Brue, Stanley L. (1993). Macro Economics. Twelfth Edition. McGraw-Hill Inc. , New York, USA. 10. Fischer, Stanle y. , Dornbusch, Rudiger. And other. (1988). Introduction to Macroeconomics. 2nd Edition. McGraw Hill, New York, USA. 11. Department of Statistics. (1997). Monthly Economic Trends. Bangladesh Bank. December. 12. Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics. (1997). Statistical Yearbook of Bangladesh 1996. Seventeenth Edition. November. 9Banking Sector in Bangladesh: Its Contribution and Performance Appendix – A List of Banks: [a] Nationalized Commercial Banks (NCBs) Agrani Bank Janata Bank Sonali Bank Rupali Bank Ltd. [b] Specialized Banks (SPBs) Bangladesh Krishi Bank Bangladesh Shilpa Bank Rajshahi Krishi Unnayan Bank [c] Private Commercial Banks (PCBs) Arab Bangladesh Bank Ltd. Islami Bank Bangladesh Ltd. National Bank Ltd. The City Bank Ltd. IFIC Bank Ltd. United Commercial Bank Ltd. Pubali Bank Ltd. Uttara Bank Ltd. Al-Baraka Bank Bangladesh Ltd. BSIC Bangladesh Ltd. Eastern Bank Ltd. National Credit and Commerce Bank Ltd.Prime Bank Ltd. Southeast Bank Ltd. Dhaka Bank Ltd. Al-Arafah I slami Bank Ltd. Social Investment Bank Ltd. Dutch-Bangla Bank Ltd. [d] TNBs Hanil Bank Hongkong Bank Society General Bank American Express Bank Ltd. ANZ Grindlays Bank Plc. S tandard Chartered Bank State Bank of India Habib Bank Ltd. Citi Bank N A Banque Indosuez National Bank of Pakistan Muslim Commercial Bank Ltd. J ournal of Business Research, Vol. 3, 2001 10 Appendix – B Various Data for PCBs Year 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 Advance Assets Net Profit Expenditure Employees BranchesAccounts (cror (cror Tk. ) (cror Tk. ) (no. ) (no. ) (no. ) Tk. ) 82 2132 1877 8 173 11562 628 8429 5202 14 245 11813 653 283320 6381 16 281 12756 693 267393 7768 22 366 13552 715 178460 7208 25 438 14810 771 160220 9072 14 594 16107 824 160834 9514 2 682 16916 865 165290 11059 (11) 765 17486 902 169549 12445 (8) 886 18034 942 84913 15502 12 819 17826 943 90599 15783 16 865 18806 1000 102055 24190 72 907 19777 1047 117985 26794 Various Data for TNBs Net A dvance Expenditure Employees Branches Year Profit Accounts (cror Tk. ) (no. ) (no. ) (cror Tk. ) (no. ) 1980 3 20 912 21 1882 1981 8 25 984 21 542 1982 11 32 999 21 2910 1983 12 45 1061 20 2888 1984 15 62 1042 20 3098 1985 18 77 1051 20 3610 1986 14 98 1064 22 3929 1987 22 119 1114 22 4144 1988 21 146 1124 22 4887 1989 7 147 1123 22 3971 1990 18 154 1135 22 3890 1991 25 99 789 18 2355 1992 38 65 826 18 2463 1993 54 92 826 18 3969 1994 68 106 888 19 6329 1995 90 146 926 23 9215 Investment (cror Tk. ) 76 293 346 327 396 506 554 787 750 653 879 1266 1439 Assets Investment (cror Tk. ) (cror Tk. ) 757 1280 1526 1476 1848 2281 2887 3245 4330 4697 4694 5575 4297 4377 5832 7111 51 70 109 118 156 163 177 196 300 279 358 340 228 203 260 266 Related article: Padma Bridge

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Physician Assisted Suicide Should Be Legalized - Essay Example Under such circumstances, some of these patients would decide to die rather than continue to live under these conditions. At this stage, in order to ease their ongoing pain, few of the patients request assistance from their physicians (Blank & Bonnicksen, 1994). The patients who ask for such favours do not fall into simple diagnostic categories. The spectrum of patients who has been asking for this favour is very wide and the range of physicians’ response is equivalent to nothing when compared. Yet each request can be compelling and their ongoing life is miserable. Few of the examples include a person who is suffering from AIDS from eight years and as a result, has lost his sight and also losing his memory; a mother with seven children suffering from ovarian cancer, who can no longer eat and has bedsores on her abdomen (Blank, Bonnicksen, 1994). These are the sort of cases for which the physician assisted suicide must become legal. Supportive argument Physician assisted suicid e is part of Euthanasia. In 1985, the Dutch Government Commission has defined this as the deliberate act in which the patient’s life is terminated on the request of the patient by a physician. The same government defines physician-assisted suicide as the act in which the patient takes the lethal drugs her or himself. According to the Oregon Death with Dignity Act 1994, physician-assisted suicide is defined as â€Å"the prescription of a lethal dose of medication for a person with a terminal illness (Dees, Dassen, Dekkers & Weel, 2010). In 1994, the state of Oregon, USA, has legalized the physician-assisted suicide. In this year, 0.12 % of the annual death rate was recorded by this process. In Belgium, when physician-assisted suicide was legalized in 2002, 0.3 % of the annual deaths were labelled under its title (Lachman, 2010). The above discussed statistics show that physician assisted suicide has not affected the overall death rate of the states. It can also be concluded t hat the process was used only in the dire situation for deserving patients. Other than this, in Physician Assisted suicide: Compassionate Liberation or Murder, Lachman (2010) states that the legalization of assisted death has shown significant improvements in the level of communication between the patient and the physicians and in palliative care training for the physicians. In order to reduce the influence of assisted suicide in the wrong direction, certain implications can be used such as raising the retirement age; this will help the older people to remain active for a longer period of time. This will also help the older people to continue with their contribution to the society and a fewer number of people will suffer from the long period of decline before death. Other than this, a considerable time must be given to the patient between the oral and the written request. In case, it is seen that the patient can turn down his request by the help of psychological counselling, it must be provided to him/her. Most importantly, the patient who is opting for physician assisted suicide must be the resident of the state. Any case from outside the state must not be catered. Due to such implications, it will be made sure that the suicide assistance is given only to the deserving patients. Counter argument At first, assisted suicide seems to be a

What Is It about 20-Somethings by Robin Marantz Henig Essay

What Is It about 20-Somethings by Robin Marantz Henig - Essay Example Instead of following a course of life in stages, people are beginning to find confusion in the fact that stability cannot be defined during adulthood anymore, in fact, increasing number of people are going back to school regardless of the age. According to different views, the problems of the 20-somethings can mirror the problematic state of the society such as lack of good jobs that can support new and young families. In fact, people in their twenties often change jobs before reaching adulthood (Par 1-6). There are different studies related to the 20-somethings. One of the said studies was undertaken by Jeffrey Jensen Arnett of the Clark University in Worcester, the 20s should be considered as a â€Å"distinct life stage† referred to as emerging adulthood. He compared the need for the new stage in the recognition of the stage of adolescence a century ago. People ages 18 to late 20s have similar actions of continuously seeking for their own niche in the socio-cultural structure in terms of job, personal relationships and livelihood. Exploration of â€Å"a sense of possibility† summarizes the different components of the psychological profile of the 20-somethings prior to age 30 which is considered as the deadline. It would be helpful to understand the said stage by segregating it but the said action can also result in repercussions not only for policymakers but for the young and emerging adult themselves (Par. 7-12). Arnett faces criticism and contradictions with regards t o his point of view but using his 10-year research to make his case, he was able to get the attention of some developmental psychology experts (Par.13-21).  

Leadership in Nursing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Leadership in Nursing - Essay Example In relation to this essay, leadership has great influence in the field of nursing (Malloch 2013). Leadership in nursing remains unquestionable. It involves critical thinking, advocacy, and all that takes place in nursing practice. It plays a central role in lives of nurses affecting the entire health care organizations. Furthermore, nursing leaders expect credibility, courageousness, and inspiration in innovation and increasing nursing practices (Sullivan 2013). Nursing leadership therefore, is about being competent and engage practices of nurses to provide better care around the legal scope and boundaries of their ethics (Malloch 2013). In addition, leadership in nursing entails innovation and visionary administration from junior to senior nurse officials. Thus, these leaders should understand themselves to help nurses offer services safely, timely and easily to patients. From above arguments, leadership has both positive and negative impacts in nursing. Just to mention but a few, some of the positive impacts include provision of healthful work environment for nurses. There is also development of opportunities due to good leadership. Moreover, leadership in nursing tends to promote good practice environment and safe health facilities (Rigolosi 2013). Although nurses may tend to make judgments of their own to deliver patient’s care, they always operate within a given team framework of a hospital. Leadership that is well developed encourages nurses to prove quality care which enhances outcomes for patients Nursing leaders can also guide conversation for best interest in case there is rise in different opinions. Moreover, leadership provides integration opportunities like skills, which ensure that nursing remains responsive to individual’s requirements on daily basis. In spite of many advantages, leadership also has negative impacts in nursing. Some of which include; nurse

Land Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words - 4

Land Law - Essay Example both personal and proprietary rights to land exist and an individual may not technically own land but a series of rights related to the use of the land1. From a jurisprudential standpoint, the distinction between personal rights and proprietary rights to use land is critically important today as it was in the past. This is particularly because land leases remain personal property in the contemporary English property laws. As such a clear distinction between personal rights and proprietary rights may be required in solving a wide range of land use disputes and other legal issues pertaining to land ownership, inheritance, leasing, and contractual agreements. However, despite some of the clear legal benefits of drawing the distinction between personal rights and proprietary rights to use land, there have been a number of opposing arguments questioning the necessity of distinguishing the two rights. For example, many critics argue that the distinction may not be necessary due to the diminishing divide between personal rights and property rights in the contemporary English laws. According to this argument, the collapsing boundary between the proprietary rights and personal rights are mostly attributed to the current persistent commercial pressure. This paper argues that it is both necessary and possible to draw a clear distinction between personal and property rights to land use. The conceptual distinction between the property rights and the personal rights in the English law can best be seen in the fundamental differences between a land lease and a license. Firstly, whereas a lease usually confers exclusive possession and greater protection of the tenant (proprietary rights to the land), a license only confers personal permission with no exclusive possession rights and the licensee cannot enforce any of its rights against third parties. In this regard, a license does not qualify as a proprietary right. In the case of Errington v Errington Woods  [1952], Lord

The Liberal reforms of 1906-1914 Essay Example for Free

The Liberal reforms of 1906-1914 Essay To what extent could the Liberal reforms of 1906-1914 be described as a radical attempt to alleviate poverty? This essay will explore the Liberal reforms introduced between 1906-1914 and assess the governments efficacy in tackling poverty. In the early 20th century poverty was becoming an increasingly important issue and for a variety of reasons. Poverty had risen up the political agenda not least because of the advent of the Labour Party and their programme for social reform. At one end of the spectrum it is argued that the Liberal Government were crusaders for social reform, fighting oppression and poverty to emancipate the working classes. At the other end, the Liberals were seen as a Government with no plan or coherent strategy to deal with these issues and were not even united; with legislation being introduced piece meal as a response to individual crisis. At the turn of the century large numbers of men, women and children had to endure deplorable living and working conditions. The estimated unemployment rate for 15 to 64 year olds in 1902 was 69%1, although the unemployment rate as measured by those claiming unemployment related benefit was as low as 5%. However this raises questions about the accuracy of measuring and reporting conditions and begins to signify the potential numbers living on the poverty line. In 1900 trade union membership represented only 11% of those in employment and the impact of the Taff Vale2 judgement meant even the Trade Unions were powerless to improve the poor working conditions. Further, the school leaving age in 1900 was 12 and according to the 1901 census 10% (140,000) 10 14 year old boys were already working. The benefits paid by the state were in any event below subsistence level and these issues were compounded by poor housing and over crowding, poor diet and health. Together with lack of health care meant large numbers were living in extreme poverty. These conditions had prevailed throughout the 19 Century and there had been no concerted effort to tackle the issue. However, in the eight years before the First World War, the Liberal Government first under Henry Campbell-Bannerman and then Herbert Asquith embarked upon a sweeping programme of social and economic reform. New Liberalism advocated social reform, financed by higher taxation on the wealthy. Surveys concerning the poor by individuals such as Charles Booth and Seebohm Rowntree in York3 had revealed the extent of poverty and brought the problem to public attention. This could explain the burst of activity by the Liberal Government. In their studies they distinguished between families suffering from primary and secondary poverty. Such studies provided a wealth of statistical data on wages, hours of work, nutritional needs, food consumed, health and housing. Booth and Rowntree published a book4 illustrating the failings of the capitalist system and argued that new measures were needed to overcome the problems of unemployment, old age and ill health. Their findings highlight the reasons for Liberal reforms being made. Historians such as S. Reed Brett and Murray believe that the Liberal reforms of 1906 onwards were significant. They claim that by moving towards the State intervening in peoples lives and changing attitudes they laid the foundations of the welfare state today. One view is that Lloyd Georges reforms were the first real step to changing societys attitude to helping the vulnerable and poor. They convinced people that the governments role should be to help the poor and needy. This made it possible for later governments to bring in welfare reforms such as the National Health Service (in 1948). Murray illustrates this view in his work: The social reforms of the pre-war Liberal government had no opportunity to make a major dent in the extent of poverty before the Great War, but there is some evidence to suggest that they began to make a difference in the long term. (Murray, 1999) The Liberal reforms can also be considered in very different terms. Some contempories believed that the Liberals were only interested in Britains efficiency as a country. It can be argued that the Liberal government brought in their welfare reforms because they were afraid that a sick and badly educated workforce would leave Britain lagging behind other countries like Germany. If Britain was to compete and maintain its position as a world power, then it had to be run efficiently. This theory supported the belief that healthy, well-educated workforce was essential. (Murphy, 2000) Commentators are also of the view that political pressures from the left induced fear in the Liberal Administration, which ultimately forced or encouraged the government to embark on social reform. These conflicting interpretations will be reviewed in more detail when considering the effectiveness of the reforms The extreme poverty identified in the research conducted by Booth and Rowntree and the poor health levels of those conscripted for the Boer War5, proved to be a catalyst for the actions taken to improve health, education and the general welfare of the public. It is clear that many historians and commentators have conflicting views concerning the Liberal Administration and question the motives for reform. However, there is no doubt that the Liberals introduced a series of important measures. The social reforms to benefit the lowest classes were centred on three areas, children, elderly and poverty resulting from unemployment and sickness. The Liberal Administration was aware of how controversial such reforms were and started with attempts to improve conditions for working class children. Such children were the most vulnerable section of society, but also could not be held to blame for their predicament. Even so there was still opposition as some believed that parents were responsible for children and that government intervention would only undermine individual freedom and responsibility. Despite such beliefs there was a common consensus that the poverty experienced by the poorest working class children was a national disgrace and a range of measures were introduced. In 1906 the government introduced the Education (School Meals) Act, which resulted from the work of the Labour MP William Beverage. This gave local councils the power to provide free school meals for the poorest families. In many ways this was a great success. On the other hand, the Act allowed local authorities to provide meals, but it did not make it a mandatory requirement. In 1907 the Liberals, established compulsory medical inspections. This was owed to civil servant Sir Robert Morant. The checks were free, but in some areas they were carried out more thoroughly than others. Further, despite the introduction of the inspections, they were not a solution for all as the treatment was not free. Therefore the success of such inspections is questionable. This is illustrated by Murray; Both measures gradually had a major impact despite their opponents. Although the 1906 Act was at first permissive (Local Education Authorities were not compelled to supply school meals), by 1914 over 14 million meals per annum were being provide for 158,000 children. In a similar way, the 1907 Act did not compel local authorities to set up clinics, but by 1914 most were proving some medical treatment for children. (Murray, 1999) Later, in 1908 the government introduced the Children and Young Persons Act, due to the influence of pressure groups such as the NSPCC6. Children became protected persons, which meant that parents who ill-treated or neglected their children could now be prosecuted. The Act banned the sale of alcohol and tobacco to children and prohibited them from working in dangerous trades like scrap metal. Also, children who broke the law were now dealt with in specialist juvenile courts and prisons. These were clearly important measures to improve the welfare of children and help tackle child poverty. It can be said that these reforms were the Liberals principal achievement during their first tenure in office. The Liberals were fully aware that for many people the main cause of poverty was old age. In response to this they introduced Old Age Pensions in 1908. It was highly controversial because of the expected cost. It was also debatable because some people thought that old people were in poverty because they had wasted their money throughout their lives. Overall, Old Age Pensions were very well received and had support from most of the public. To qualify, people had to be over the age of 70. They also had to earn less than à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½31 per year and have lived in Britain for 20 years. The number of old people who depended on charity or the Poor Law dropped dramatically as a result of this reform. Pugh clarifies this: The scheme was implemented in ways calculated to reassure the beneficiaries, that it promoted the independence of the elderly, that it reached more people than is usually thought, and that it helped to modify popular attitudes towards the state. (Martin Pugh 2000) However, the pension act was still a very controversial measure mainly due to the sectors of society excluded by the Act and the retention of the concept deserving and undeserving individuals. With regard to the unemployed Booth and Rowntrees investigations revealed that inadequate wages were another major cause of poverty and minimum wage legislation was identified as a radical step. The Liberals felt they had no option other than to address the problem and as a result passed the 1909 Trade Boards Act and the 1912 Mines Act. Although they were limited in scope and effect, the measures marked a shift away from the 19th century laissez faire attitude that the government should not intervene in the setting of wages. Some of the most far-reaching reforms introduced by the Liberals concerned working people. Throughout the early 1900s there were a range of different measures undertaken by local authorities to help the sick and unemployed. The government supported many. However, by 1911 the Liberals were convinced that some kind of government-controlled national system was needed. As a result they created National Insurance in 1911. The National Insurance Act was in two parts. The 1st part dealt with unemployment, the second with health. Workers earning under à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½160 per year had to join the scheme. They paid 4d per week from their own wages into an insurance scheme. The employer added a further 2d and the government added 3d on top of that. In return for their contributions workers got sick pay of 10 shillings a week for 6 months and unemployment pay of 7 shillings a week for up to 15 weeks. As with the other Liberal measures, when the scheme was introduced there was a lot of opposition suggesting its radical nature. Many workers resented the money being taken from their wages and many employers resented the amount of money it cost them. This was a regressive measure. The policy could have been more radical and progressive by linking the sums payable in National Insurance to wages as opposed to one amount for all workers. However, this was arguably the most important of all welfare reforms. By 1913, 13 million workers were insured in the scheme and a very important safety net had been established. It marked a break with the past in establishing the principle that providing help for the unemployed was a national not a local responsibility. It was clear that the principle of individual liberty was now being challenged by a stronger emphasis on collective welfare rights. (www.NationalArchives.gov.uk) Pearce and Stewart highlight this: Although the Liberal government failed to make a popular impact at the time, a number of measures had particular significance because they showed that the government were prepared to intervene far more than had been the case in the past. This exemplifies a radical attempt to improve poverty: The effect of these social reforms meant a significant increase in government intervention. The state had now assumed an unprecedented degree of responsibility for individuals in the lower class of society. (Mike Byrne, 2005) The main criticisms of the Liberals reforms were the attitude towards welfare was generally too cautious. It can be argued that the Liberals reforms were little more than a response to economic and political circumstances. There were large elements of compromise and Victorian moral attitudes were still featuring in the reforms. Whilst it is accepted that, as a whole, the welfare package introduced by the Liberals helped to some extent alleviate poverty, it is also clear that many people continued to slip through the net and that the Liberals measures were very limited in scope and were capable of further extensions. For example the 1909 pensions excluded old people under the age of 70 and did not cover criminals, people continually failing to find work and drunkards. Workers outside the industries covered in the Labour Exchange Act and Miners Minimum Wage Act did not qualify to receive a minimum wage. Only c.13 million out of a total population of c.45 million were included in the National Insurance Scheme. The National Insurance 1911 act pension coverage was not universal and was aimed mainly at lower paid and manual workers. It did not provide support for dependants. (www.National Statistics.gov.uk) Further more Free medical care was available to only a wage earner, not the wife or children. To tackle poverty more effectively the reforms could have been universal without deliberately excluding thousands of people. This is expounded by Watts: Changes were often modest in scope and there was a number of areas which remained unreformed. (Watts, 1995) Most of the Liberal reforms depended upon local government and local services to deliver them. While this had the effect of removing the stigma of the Poor Law, it also depended upon the priorities of the local authorities. The provision of school medical services, for example, was made possible by central government but its implementation was patchy as it relied on local authorities, many having differing priorities. In effect this meant there was no coherent strategy or mechanism to implement the much-needed reform, which accordingly failed to achieve the desired outcome. The range of reforms introduced by the Liberals was impressive, but it was not the result of a preconceived programme. Historians often see the reforms as individual solutions to particular social problems, not as a wider radical movement. If they were to have come to power, with a formal programme for poverty relief the reforms may have been more radical and affected a wider section of society. The Government as a whole did not seem to be very committed to welfare reforms, apart from Lloyd George and Churchill. It is argued that the reforms were Lloyd George and Churchills response to what they saw as the challenge from the left. By stealing Labours thunder, they hoped to capture more working class votes. Watts illustrates this: Lloyd George and Churchill revealed a certain skill in adapting Liberalism to the challenge of the condition of the people question. In so doing, they retained some middle-class support and made a bid for the loyalty of the working classes. (Watts, 1995) By ensuring that reforms were as moderate as possible, they hoped to retain middle-class support. In other words, if the reforms are seen in terms of party political advantage, far from being radical, the reforms can be described as a conservative response to the radical threat from the left. When comparing the Liberal actions in light of later developments the reforms were not wholly radical and a great deal of key legislation was left undone. The legislation was hardly revolutionary. The state pension was free but not universal. Only around half a million of the oldest, poorest, and most sober elderly people obtained a pension, which was less than a bare subsistence income. (Tanner, 1900) When the Liberals came to power they had no preconceived strategic plan to tackle poverty and indeed right up to the eve of the 1906 General Election Campbell-Bannerman strove to avoid committing the Party to any measures to deal with unemployment, or even old age pensions. (Hay 1975) Policies to tackle social problems once they came to power were introduced piece meal, in response to economic and political circumstances rather than a coherent reform package. The reforms were very limited, confused and didnt always favour the poor. Thus, they fell short of a full-scale attack on poverty. Clarke comments on the Education and Licensing Bills, which had to be scrapped as a result of opposition in the House of Lords. Pearce and Stuart went further stating many national disaster areas remained untouched the problem of slum housing for example was not tackled. (Pearce and Stewart, 1992) However, many of the Liberal reforms introduced provided the foundations for a Welfare State and paved the way for subsequent social reform. There was a fundamental shift in social attitudes to poverty and welfare as they convinced people that governments should help the poor and needy. This was a significant achievement for the Liberal Administration, which should not be underestimated. The policies introduced were also successful in helping to alleviate poverty. The measures to introduce medical inspections and school meals argues Murray made a significant impact by 1914 over 14 million meals per annum were being provided for 158,000 children the 1907 Act did not compel Local Authorities to set up clinics but by 1914 most were providing medical treatment for children. Murray concludes the social reforms of the pre-war Liberal government had no opportunity to make a major dent in the extreme poverty before the Great War, but there is some evidence to suggest they began to make a di fference in the longer term. (Murray, 1999) In conclusion, the nature and success of the Liberal reforms has been the subject of keen historical debate and almost unparalleled scrutiny, resulting in many conflicting views. It cannot be denied there was scope for more radical reform. However, when taking in to account the contemporary, social values and norms, political climate, and the argument of the state versus individual responsibility this was a bold attempt by the Liberal Administration to introduce radical reform. Such reforms helped to alleviate poverty and paved the way for future reforms, even though the Governments motivation may at times have been based upon expediency and was not always entirely principled or purist. 1 This and the following statistics were taken from the Natioanl statistics website. 2 The Taff Vale judgement prevented Unions from picketing and any union could be liable to pay unlimited damages for losses caused by a strike. 3 Charles Booth and Seebohm Rowntree, undertook major investigations into the extent and causes of poverty in British cities. They discovered that up to 30% of the population of the cities were living in or below poverty levels and the conditions were such that people could not pull themselves out of poverty by their own actions alone. Booth and Rowntree both identified the main causes of poverty as being illness, unemployment and old age. 4 Charles Booth published, Life and Labour of People in London in 1889 and Seeboh Rowntree published, Poverty A study of Town Life in 1901. 5 The Boer War was an attempt by the British to re-impose its control over Southern Africa, and when Britain put pressure on the Boers they had little option other than to fight. The British public expected the war to be over in a few weeks as the Boers were inexperienced and badly equipped. However the defeat of 50,000 Boers took 450,00 British troops and before the end, it cost 22,000 lives and well over à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½200,000,000 of money. 6 The National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC). Bibliography From George III to George VI A brief history of Britain from 1760 to 1952 (S. Reed Brett) An illustrated history of modern Britain 1783 1964 (Denis Richards and J.W. Hunt) The origins of the Liberal Welfare reforms 1906-1914 (J.R Hay) Heinemann Advanced History: Poverty and Public Health 1815-1948 (Rosemary Rees) Access to History: Britain 1895-1918 (Mike Byrne) Life and Labour of People in London (Charles Booth 1889) Poverty A study of town life (Seebohm Rowntree 1901) www.LearningCurve.gov.uk www.nationalachieves.gov.uk http://www.nedrichards.com/docs/libsocref.pdf www.lednum.wordpress.com/2006/09/07/the-liberal-reforms-of-1906-1914/ www.liberalhistory.org.uk www.en.wikipedia.org www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk www.politics.co.uk www.statistics.gov.uk

Secure Payment Device using NFC

Secure Payment Device using NFC CAREER EPISODE 3 3.1 INTRODUCTION In my last semester, i.e. 8th semester, I made a project called Secure Payment Device using NFC. My last career episode is about this project. I completed this project in six months duration from Jan 2013 to May 2013. I completed my Bachelors Degree in Electronics and Communication in June 2013. I pursued this program from Guru Nanak Dev University, Gurdaspur, India. The project secure payment device using NFC was completed in a group and I was assigned the group leader. Also, it was performed under the supervision of Prof. Rana. 3.2 BACKGROUND NFC Near Field Communication, it is a wireless communication technology. NFC and mobile payments are the two fields which are gaining attention in the society lately. Mostly all mobile phone has this NFC technology, and more to come in near future. Using NFC, if the payments are made possible, it will attract more masses. The project concentrates on how this technology can be used for mobile payments. It stores the credit card or debit card number on the phone i.e. the digital money and uses NFC reader to detect the card number and send it to the server for authentication. For this purpose, I had prepared a dummy database bank system and uploaded it on the server side. 3.3 OBJECTIVES The objective behind implementing this project was to overcome the problems related to payment. People tend to forget their wallet and debit/credit card, or there occurs a problem of security if the card is lost. So, to overcome this issue I designed a NFC based payment method, which replaces the regular money cards. The users mobile system become the mode of payment transaction. This solves the issue of security also and the person always has a mode of payment in his phone. Also, NFC is the new and useful technology, which got me interested in its various forms of application. 3.4 In this device, NFC for requesting on client end and sending card number, POS (Point of Sales) Terminal for client end for receiving data and processing the transaction, Website for registration, account details etc., Web service which is used for authentication and Database for loading and saving users details are required. Various new technology and software are used in designing of this device. The POS terminal is NFC reader interfaced with Arduino, from Arduino the program code is sent to APDU commands on phone to verify the AID of the application. Eclipse software is used to write application for NFC Enabled Phone to send card number and password that is stored in the phone. Computer languages like C#, ASP.NET are used to write the code for website and webserver. And SQL is used for database technology. 3.5 The idea behind this project is that the user just touches his phone to NFC reader when the payment is need to be made, and the phone will act as the credit card or debit card that the user previously used to use. A mobile payment enabled phone is associated with the bank or the credit card company, in a similar way the phone is associated to phone service provider.ÂÂ   For my project a dummy system and bank with some random database is made to use which assigns a card number and authenticates the user the permission required at the time of payment. 3.6 The project was performed in a group, and being a group leader I had many responsibilities and duties that I had to perform perfectly and had to maintain professional rules of conduct. The duties are listed below: To start with, I had to understand the problem statement assigned to me and survey and research relevant and related topics for possible solutions. After having the solution, I mapped a work plan. Based on the work plan, I divided the whole project into small task and assigned each team member the task based on team members ability. Also, I gave a strict deadline. I involved myself in the design procedure of the block diagram for this device based on my research work. I studied and compared all the components and came up with a final set of components. Using my planned circuit diagram and the component list, I started to plot the hardware model. I learned new software for the implementation of the programming codes in my device. Testing and troubleshooting was performed. Regular reports on updates of my project was given to the project guide. 3.7 PERSONAL ENGINEERING ACTIVITY Based on my literature survey, I made a block diagram for my device. For my project, I have used Roboduino with ATmega328, which is Arduino compatible board. I chose this microcontroller due to its simplicity in programming. To display a message at the POS terminal, I used LCD and interfaced it with Arduino. The NFC reader is interfaced with Arduino in SPI mode. I have made use of PN532 NFC IC which prepares NFC reader by matching 13.56MHz frequency with the antenna. The data that is scanned by NFC reader is passed to the computer and further sent to web server for authentication. The web servers code that is written in visual studio will verify the data that is sent to the web service URL. The URL is already hosted. It will then send a notification stating the success or failure of the data and that will be displayed on the LCD. 3.8 To use this system, it involves three parties buyer, bank, and the merchant. The process involves tapping the buyers phone on the reader at the point of sales (POS). Once the AID is selected from the android side, it will return the card number and PIN to the reader. As per the ISO 7816-4 standard, these values received are transferred in HEX code. On the PC terminal, this HEX code is converted into string by serial client. The bank receives the card no and PIN for verification purpose. On receiving the reply, the LCD will display true or false and it will notify the buyer about his or her transaction. 3.9 For the function of the system, I used the following components to suit my requirement. PN532 it is a highly-integrated transmission module which is used for contactless communication at 13.56MHz and it also supports microcontroller functionality based on 80C51 core. Arduino Duemilanove, LCD 162, Resistors, Capacitors, LED, MOSFET, Inductor and Crystal With the help of these components I prepared a circuit diagram using a software called Eclipse. The readers circuit diagram differs than others because it moves from one host interface to other and the SPI interface uses MOSI. PN532 supports three modes. The interfacing is done for the LCD and NFC shield with the Roboduino. The NFC shield operates as SPI modes while interfacing, so 4 pins MOSI, MISO, SS and SCK are interfaced to the Arduino pins. 3.10 Once my hardware part was completed and the components were soldered to the PCB, I progressed my work with the development of the software part for my device. The software part was divided into two parts, one for the hardware functioning and the other part was designed to function the web application. To start with the implementation, I had to learn certain programming software, as they were new for me. The four software that are used in my device are Arduino IDE used for programming Arduino Uno board with C++ language, Microsoft Visual Studio used for developing a serial client software, web application and web service with the use of C#, Eagle is used for PCB designing and schematic layout and Eclipse to develop android applications using Java code. 3.11 For receiving data on COM port and for the verification purpose of the user, a software i.e. serial client is developed with the help of C#.Net. A random website is developed for the registration and processing the NFC payment purpose, editing details of the user, adding money etc. A tap pay app based on android is prepared for NFC shield to communicate and transfer the required card details to serial port. The serial client performs all further procedure. After the completion of the software designing, the project was run on the trial basis to check its working and for any faulty situation. Various troubleshooting and test kits were used to solve any issue in the device. All the connections were checked at the final stage to avoid short circuit situation of the PCB. 3.12 Working in teams is also a challenging situation. And as I was the group leader, I had to present the complete working model of my project on time. I coordinated with each group member. I took a fair, unbiased, and appropriate decision in the state of conflict. I took help from my seniors and project supervisor in the crises of any error or problem. There were two major issues during my project, first was working on software as coming from electronics and communication background, it was difficult and challenge to write such big codes. I took the challenge and learned all possible solutions and techniques to write the code. The second issue was I had to reconnect some of the components as while performing a trial run, the microcontroller got burnt. I took precaution while correcting the issue so that I dont make the same mistake again. 3.13 SUMMARY Therefore, after performing and developing such endless device, I have proposed a trusted and secure option for payment method which is based on NFC. It processes payment without the need of physical card, the mobile does all the work by just tapping it at the reader. Once the users details are verified, the payment is processed and executed successfully. I have kept the window open for expanding my project in future. The details can be encrypted before transferring it from the phone to the POS, thus keeping it more safe and secure. It can be used anywhere, from shopping at small shops to malls, as well as an access system for the door or for buying tickets at railway or bus stations. 3.14 The project was a big step in my bachelors degree. It involved serious knowledge and full dedication. I learned and developed new technologies and software that are related to my electronics and communication field. I used my engineering knowledge at various point during the execution and implementation of the project. I was grateful to my project guide for constantly helping me and training me to develop such device. I made a presentation and report describing the details of my project. I referenced various work of great researchers and scientist wherever needed.

Challenges and Techniques of the Oil Industry

Challenges and Techniques of the Oil Industry The Oil Sand Energy availability and economic progress go hand in hand. It is not possible to achieve economic progress in the absence of cheap, reliable energy availability. The use of energy on the part of society has increased systematically over the past two centuries, since the time of the industrial revolution. And there is no end in sight to the increase in the consumption of energy. This will continue because as global population continues to increase and especially in some of the emerging countries like China and India, the consumption of energy is bound to increase exponentially. In the past fifty years, global energy consumption has increased monotonously and how is this demand satisfied? This demand is being meet primarily with crude oil. Crude oil has been the largest energy component since 1960 and grew very rapidly in the 1970s and ever since, has grown less rapidly. Though oil has been losing ground but nevertheless, it remains the most important source of energy, second being coal, according to the Energy Information Administration (EIA). Oil is a fossil fuel and the world is about 80 to 85% dependent on fossil fuels for our energy supply. This is a challenge because when fossil fuels are burnt, they emit CO2 in the atmosphere and since CO2 is a greenhouse gas, it contributes to global warming Oil is a mix of hydrocarbons that are liquid under atmospheric conditions. The fact that they are liquid allows for easier processing, transportation, storage, and has a higher content of energy per volume. These are the greatest advantages that oil has over other energy resources.   However, there are scenarios where the oil is not trapped in a cap rocks and forces it way out to the surface, or very close to the surface of the ground, at which point, the lighter molecules evaporate into the atmosphere and what is left are heavier molecules, which are normally called extra heavy oil or bitumen. This is known as Oil sands or Tar sand and it is made up of a mixture of sand, water, clay, and bitumen[1]. Oil sands or Tar sand are found in various countries throughout the world, but the vast quantities of oil sand reserves are found in Canada and Venezuela, according to EIA. Alberta, Canada, is estimated to have about 1.7 to 2.5 trillion barrels of oil sand reserve, thus, represent ing the largest single reserve of oil in the world.[2] Accordingly, Canada produced about 3.8 million barrel per day of crude oil, in 2014 alone. Of this, 2.2 million barrel per day was produced from the oil sands.[3] About 10% of the worlds oil reserves are located in the Alberta oil sands and about 96 percent of Canadas total oil reserves are contained in the oil sands.[4] Moreover, Canada is said to be the leading supplier of crude oil and refined oil products to the United States and the trend continues to grow in terms of percentage of US oil imports. About 60 percent of Canadas production capacity from oil sand, about 1.34 million barrels per day is exported to the US.[5] Energy as found in nature needs to mined, processed, refined and transported before it is available for end use. Unlike oil produced by conventional oil drilling which is generally less dense than water, extracting oil from oil sands is more complex. There are two methods for getting bitumen out of the ground and turning it into usable products in-situ and open pit mining. The extraction method used will depend on how deep the oil sand deposits are below the surface. Both methods are complex, energy-intensive and expensive processes. In-situ (in place) In-situ extraction process is used to mine bitumen that lies deep below the surface of the ground (greater than 75 meters underground). According to studies, about 80% of oil sands reserves in Canada are accessible via in-situ techniques.[6] The in-situ method normally uses a process called Steam Assisted Gravity Drainage (SAGD). This method requires the drilling of two horizontal wells; one is used for injecting steam into the oil sand deposit to heat the oil sand making the bitumen to become more fluid and easy to flow more easily. The second well is used to pump out the flowing bitumen to the surface.[7] Open-Pit Mining Like the conventional oil mining Open-pit mining is used when mining oil sand reserves that are closer to the surface of the ground (less than 75 meters below the ground). According to industry report, 20% of oil sand reserves in Canada are extracted using this mining technique.[8] With this method, trees and top layer of soil are cleared, large shovels are used to scoop the oil sand, which is mix of sand, water and bitumen into large trucks and then moved it to onsite processing facility, where hot water is added to this mixture of sand, clay, bitumen, in a large separation vessel. Bitumen froth is forced to rise to the surface, during the separation process and then removed and diluted with chemicals.[9] Normally, the spent sand and other materials that are recovered during this process is then returned to the mines to fill in empty space that has been mined as a way of reclamation Upgrading Once the Bitumen is recovered from either through open-pit or from in-situ operation, the viscous substance is then processed in order to make it easier to transport through pipelines to various refinery, where it is to be used as feedstock. This process is called upgrade. The purpose of upgrading is to transform bitumen into synthetic crude oil, a high quality, light sweet crude oil, by removing carbon and adding hydrogen and chemical to bitumen.[10] Typically the upgrading process comes in two phases namely primary and secondary upgrading. The primary upgrading involves breaking down the heavy molecules of bitumen into lighter and less viscous molecules. The secondary upgrading is used to further cleanse and purify the bitumen attained from primary phase. This phase involves removing other impurities such as nitrogen, Sulphur, and trace metals and get it ready for oil refineries.[11] Refining The bitumen is finally delivered to through pipelines the refinery through pipelines. The SCO product is then sent to a downstream refinery for conversion into final product.[12] Here the oil is processed and converted into final products like gasoline, jet fuel, diesel, plastics, asphalt and other consumer and industrial products. Environmental Challenges The mining and processing of oil sands present a variety of environmental impacts, such as global warming and greenhouse gas emissions, disturbance of land structure, and air and water quality. It also may have significant social and economic impactson local communities. Another major concern is related to the tremendous amount of water required for oil sands development -extraction, upgrading and refining. It is estimated that the process requires an average of three barrels of water for one barrel of oil produced,[13] though some of the water are be recycled. The major environmental challenges to oil sand extraction among others are land, water, air: Land Development of oil sand crate concern about the accumulation of large amounts of residual waste known as tailings. Tailing, which contain a mix of water, clay, un-recovered bitumen, and dissolved chemicals, including some organic compounds are considered to be extremely toxic and very hazardous to the environment. Moreover, the tailings are stored in large ponds and causes seepage into the surrounding landscape, though the water released from the ponds can be recycled and reused, however, most still remains as mud almost indefinitely. The massive activities associated with oil sand project are also known to create tremendous structural disturbances of the landscape including seismic exploration and construction of wells, roads pipelines etc. negatively impact the environment and endangers the wildlife. Water Since oil sand is made up of a mixture of sand, water, clay and bitumen, a hot water process is required to separates the bitumen from the associated sand, water, clay and minerals. The process takes enormous amount of water of fresh water to produce a barrel of bitumen from mined oil sands. In many cases, the water is sourced from ground water aquifers. Rapid expansion of oil sands projects are causing great strains on fresh water resources, which leads to ecological and environmental problems.[14] Also, since bitumen is denser than water, it can be harder to clean up when there is a spill. Additionally, oil sands mining operations produce huge amounts of toxic waste, known as tailings, which consist of water, sand, silt, clay, hydrocarbons and contaminants.   The contaminates may contain various levels of naphthenic acids, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, phenolic compounds, ammonia and mercury etc., some of which, according to International Agency for Research on Cancer an d the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, are known to be cancer-causing agent.[15] Even worst, the tailings are mostly stored in ponds or man-made dams, thus causing the tailing to leak into ground water and surrounding water resources. It is estimated that about four billion liters of tailings leak each year, thereby triggering immense environment devastation.[16] Air Extracting Oil sands require a substantial amount of energy in processing to process, upgrading and refining bitumen to the final products suitable for market. The entire development process is so energy intensive that it contributes immensely in carbon emissions. Reports suggest that the oil sand industry is among the highest contributors of national air emissions in Canada. Oil is produced to be consumed, more than half of the oil consumed in the world is for transportation fueling societys unquenchable demand for mobility. More than 50 percent of oil produced is used for transportation needs.[17]. As the worlds population grows, so will the global passenger mobility, global freight and transportation volumes. Additionally, the current global rise in urbanization, the global economic growth, as well as high level of economic development are other important factors prompting the increase in demand for oil. As fossil fuel, final oil products are burnt for energy through the various applications for which they are used. When burnt, they emit high amounts of harmful emissions, including nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, and particles that drift into the atmosphere and contribute to air pollution. Carbon dioxide and water vapor, along with other gases such as ozone and nitrous oxide, are known greenhouse gases and the increasing amounts of these greenhouse g ases in the atmosphere are linked to global warming and could have disastrous environmental consequences.[18] However, since the business of producing oil from oil sand is base generally on oil price, chances are that there will be some slowdown in sand oil operations around the world, as oil prices decline. Due to the recent downward trend of oil prices, the economic viability and financial attractiveness of oil sands projects have also declined. Financial analysts including those from Goldman Sachs and Total have concluded that oil sands projects require long-term prices in excess of $80/barrel to break even[19]. Deutsche Bank and BP, among others, have raised doubts about the future of investing in oil sand and Shell Oil has significantly scaled back its oil sands plans[20]. If these phenomena should continue, it might be the preeminent way in reducing and mitigating the environmental degradation being caused by oil sand. [1] http://www.canadasoilsands.ca/en/what-are-the-oil-sands/recovering-the-oil [2] http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/energy [3] lbid [4] www.oilsandsmagazine.com/technical/oilsands-101 [5] Kenny Bruno, Bruce Baizel, Susan Casey-Lefkowitz, Elizabeth Shope, and Kate Colarulli, Tax Sands Invasion: How Dirty and Expensive Oil from Canada Threatens Americas New Energy Economy (May 2010) [6] http://www.suncor.com/about-us/oil-sands [7] http://www.canadasoilsands.ca/en/what-are-the-oil-sands/recovering-the-oil [8] http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/energy [9] http://www.canadasoilsands.ca/en/what-are-the-oil-sands/recovering-the-oil [10] http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/energy [11] lbid [12] http://www.oilsandsmagazine.com/technical/oilsands-101 [13] http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/energy [14] lbid [15] Kenny Bruno, Bruce Baizel, Susan Casey-Lefkowitz, Elizabeth Shope, and Kate Colarulli, Tax Sands Invasion: How  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   Dirty and Expensive Oil from Canada Threatens Americas New Energy Economy (May 2010) [16] lbid [17] https://www.iea.org [18] Kenny Bruno, Bruce Baizel, Susan Casey-Lefkowitz, Elizabeth Shope, and Kate Colarulli, Tax Sands Invasion: How Dirty and Expensive Oil from Canada Threatens Americas New Energy Economy (May 2010) [19] lbid [20] lbid

Innovation for Settlers of The Americas :: essays research papers

The Innovative Worlds The Americas were an undiscovered challenge for new settlers. Many different types of people and cultures had to merge to make their new lives simple as possible. Europeans were not even aware of the existence of the Americas before the fifteenth century. They needed aiding along their journeys. Many people were used to help others on their paths in exploring the new worlds. Many of these helpful â€Å"guides† didn’t even speak English and most the time were kept against their will. â€Å"The Apalachee Indians lived in northwestern Florida. Keeping these Indians as guides, we preceded another ten or twelve leagues, to a village of fifteen houses, where we saw a large cornfield ready for harvest, some of the ears already dry.† The Indian guides helped them across the land whether it was willingly or not. It was a time of extreme conditions when it came to finding and doing things for ones own self. Disease was the reaper of many deaths. Initial contact between al l these separate groups was a treacherous one. The Spaniards shot and captured the Indians, and distastefully took them back to Spanish land even in the 1750’s. When two different worlds collide, the want for power and authority bring on a rivalry and survival of the fittest. When the Spanish empire was evolving, the Spanish settlers were only interested in exploiting the Americas for their minerals such as gold and silver. The â€Å"surface riches† ultimately weakened the incentive to promote economic growth in Spain. Between effectively collecting these precious items and gaining control, this made Spain the most powerful nation on earth the power allowed the Spanish to take over any situation. The Native Americans were the first to fully get this mistreatment The Native Americans received two different types of contact from the settlers. One thing learned was religious values. Even as in Cabeza De Vaca the settlers were very religious. They relied on god’s help. Hearing mass on Sundays was an occasion that was looked forward to. Teaching the religion to the Indians provided a spread of Christianity while also proving a common ground for the settlers and Indians to relate to one another. The Jesuits provided church and religion just the same. They helped the Guanani Indians build on their city and interpret the Spanish culture. This religious enactment helped the two differently cultured worlds to come together.

Gertrude Stein :: essays research papers fc

Gertrude Stein   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"I know I am† (Burnett 51). This response form Gertrude Stein was given in answer to the question â€Å"You think you are a genius?† posed to her by the French artist Henri Matisse. This was the epitome of Stein.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Born in 1876, in Allegheny, Pennsylvania, Gertrude was the fifth child, and youngest, to Daniel and Amelia Stein, German-Jewish immigrants. She was a bright girl, but was noted for â€Å"her lifelong indifference to rules† (Gombar 41), especially in school. The early death of her mother was the cause of this. Her father was the king of his castle, often acting as a tyrant, and Stein â€Å"credited her lifelong aversion to all authorities and father figures† (Gombar 41) to him.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Gertrude always had a close relationship to her older brother, Leo. They were fast friends throughout their childhood, and into their adulthood. Though she had completed few years of high school, and did not meet the requirements in Latin, when Leo attended Harvard in 1892, Gertrude followed in 1893, in the women’s Harvard Annex. While at Harvard, she was taken under the wing of noted psychoanalyst, William James. James had an effect on Stein’s later writings as well. His method of â€Å"automatic writing, in which subjects wrote down their unedited, free-associative thoughts† (Gombar 42), was often the way Gertrude wrote many of her literary pieces. In 1897, she was denied her bachelor’s degree, but the next year, she graduated magna cum laude with the class of 1898. Because of high recommendations from James and her other professors, she was granted admission to Johns Hopkins Medical School, where her brother was also studying. They lived together in Baltimore, and Leo would gather friends on the weekends for their infamous salons. Leo, from his familiar post leaning against the bookcase, would direct discussions that lasted five to six hours. Life was pleasant in their household, and Gertrude failed to notice Leo was changing. Within weeks, he was packed and on his way to Europe. For a while, Gertrude lived with another roommate, but she, too, got restless, and in 1903, she joined Leo in Europe. After traveling in Europe and Africa, she settled with Leo in France. Their apartment at 27 rue de Fleurus was soon filled with paintings by the new Modernists, such as Pablo Picasso, Paul Cà ©zanne, and Henri Matisse. Being among the first to accept the Modernist paintings, Gertrude and Leo became friends with the artists.

Chemistry Sodium Thiosulpahte :: essays research papers

Introduction Over the next few weeks I will be doing several attempts of the same experiment that involves the reaction of sodium thiosulphate and hydrochloric acid, I will be closely watching the reaction and how long in takes for the reactants to react. As yet I have not decided which of the several variables I will be changing. I also aim to take results of the reaction down onto a table, which then will be transferred onto a line graph, which will show us the nature of the reaction. Variables There are five factors which affect the rate of a reaction, according to the collision theory: temperature, concentration (of solution), pressure (in gases), surface are (of solid reactants), and catalysts. I have chosen to investigate the effect of temperature on the reactants. Aim To see the effects of a change in temperature and concentration we affect the rate of the reaction. The reaction that will be used is: Sodium Thiosulphate + Hydrochloric Acid Na2S2O3 (aq) + 2HCl (aq). Plan I am going to investigate what happens when sodium thiosulphate and Hydrochloric acid react. As I have done this experiment before I have a good understanding of what I need to so hopefully nothing will go wrong, also I will be going back to results and information I used before the experiment to make sure I am doing everything right. As I want to have a fair test, so that I get accurate results, I will make sure that all the main variables will stay the same all the way through the experiment, concentration of both solutions will be kept constant, as there is no gas the variable of pressure wont have an affect on this reaction, as I am using no solids the variable of suface area wont be a problem, and finally as I am not using a catalyst it wont have an effect on the reaction. As well as these things being important there is a more important aspect that I will need to take into account and that is my own safety, and the safety of my fellow pupils. To make sure I don’t endanger myself I will be using the following apparatus: 1 thermometer 1 beaker 2 measuring cylinders 1 conical flask 1 tripod 1 gauze 1 heatproof mat 1 stopwatch 1 Bunsen burner 1 pair of tongs 1 pair of goggles To make it easy to follow when drawing graphs and when logging my data I will be using a table similar to this:

Moral Naturalists Essay

The moral naturalists believed that moral responses are a result of a long history of relationship. The naturalists argue that we observe people as they live thus one do not have to rely on metaphysics or exposure. The moral naturalists were not able to elaborate the reasons as to why morality is very important. The fact that if at all morality is natural, why are we struggling to maintain moral standards, yet it’s in the process of evolution. Moreover, the naturalist relied on science given that they related man’s morality with primates and that due to evolution, morals do change (Wikipedia. org, 2010). They argued that moral judgment is a result of intuition which makes us to come up with justifications after the facts. Moral naturalist fails in accepting that transcendence and the sacred plays a most important role in every human in the society. They consider gentleness, fairness and kindness to be moral life while neglecting awesomeness, greatness and transcendent morality satisfaction. In addition, it lays emphasis on group cohesion via cooperative virtues e. g. empathy over individual dissent which encourages strives for recognition and superiority. The moral naturalist show that religion has led to increased cases of abortion, murder, suicide and sexual immorality which in the real sense are not the case (Brooks, 2010). They support their view by arguing that belief and worship of God is unnecessary for healthy society in view of the fact that it contribute to many social problems. In support for Brooks against moral naturalism, its evidenced that each community have got different beliefs and coming up with a common moral for all society it can prove to be disastrous. This is because the motivating factor that makes a person to do what is right or wrong is what accounts for morality. This study contrast religious believers’ attitude that religion is the best in fostering moral and ethical behaviors for a healthy society. On the other hand, the religious groups believe that religion has got many benefits to the society for it helps in dealing with crime, and all other vices in the society thus lowering them and offering social beneficial. Furthermore, the study analysis shows that devotion of religious believers contribute to many ills in the society which according to Christians and other believers is not true for they consider religion as a source of blessings to their society for it carries God blessings. The moral naturalist’s favors secularism that it is more effective in securing social cohesion and non-violent resolution in the society of conflict unlike religious believers on the ground that moral order is not instituted on religion. The religious naturalist focuses on the real meaning of life. They claim that the world should be understood in religious way without a detailed system of beliefs. They endeavor to ensure that human need to value their lives and also recognize that they are part of nature. Thus they should accept science for it tries to provide reliable information about nature and the world at large. The moral naturalist claims that the religious believers have got a strong sense of right and wrong making them to indulge in vices like the secular ones. And that some religion grants people doors for committing crimes like the terrorist Muslims who blow themselves up with confidence that by so doing they will go straight to paradise. This is another shortcoming of the moral naturalist given that religious believer do have a common moral on knowing what is wrong and right since they have a moral compass from their creator (MST, 2010). When one act contrary to morality, he becomes blasphemous and thus evolved intuitions do not guarantee the right or consistence answers to any moral dilemma. The Americans do not agree with these scientific claims of morality. Most of them especially those who support Christianity support consider religion to be the promoters of morals leading to a decent society which is free from any sort of wickedness. Moreover, the theory can not find access to the American society given that most of them are Christians who believe in the existence of God. Though the scientist argue that morality is a biological adaptation and yet people are steered by their deepest cares and concerns. The study of scientist on countries with the lowest social ills revealed that non religious nation had less cases of social ills compared to religious nation, they concluded that religious belief is the main contributor of social evils (Hauser & Singer, 2005). In addition, most informed Americans will not agree to the naturalist theoretical emphasis that human morality has evolved together with those of other primates. Given that naturalism involves a deep respect to science methodology which can be proved wrong or right depending on the argument posed. Naturalism therefore can’t be a substantive proposal for it’s a result of science. In addition, attention will only be paid on what is morally upright to the society and not what scientists are trying to imply (Wisdomresearch. org, 2010). Rationality is to be the key concern of the Americans in ensuring morality has been maintained in the society hence much attention is left out of naturalism on the ground of it being just a research program and not real. Works cited Brooks, David. The Moral Naturalists, 2010. Retrieved on 1st August 2010 from, http://www. nytimes. com/2010/07/23/opinion/23brooks. html? _r=2&ref=davidbrooks Hauser, M. & Singer, P. (n d). Morality without Religion. Retrieved on 1st August 2010 from, http://www. wjh. harvard. edu/~mnkylab/publications/recent/HauserSingerMoralRelig05. pdf MST, Participation in the MST, 2010. Retrieved on 1st August 2010 from, http://wjh1. wjh. harvard. edu/~moral/test. php Wikipedia. org, Religious Naturalism, 2010. Retrieved on 1st August 2010 from, http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Religious_naturalism Wisdomresearch. org, Defining Wisdom, 2010. Retrieved on 1st August 2010 from, http://wisdomresearch. org/Arete/GreeneVideo. aspx